When Will the Violence Stop By: Rachel Valle

When Will the Violence Start

By: Rachel Valle

The Justice Department reports that one in three native women are raped in her lifetime, with many others too demoralized to say anything. Erdrich then goes on to talk about the red shawls the native women wear at the powwows, to recognize just how many people have been sexual abused on these reservations. Although to the outer eye, these are nothing more than a token of regret for these women to the natives of the reservations they are so much more. High rape has become a very modern problem in these areas and the US government has yet to take any actions towards fighting it. More than 67% of abuse cases get declined by federal prosecutors, and since the government has made it so the tribal courts can not try a non-indian man putting justice to these abusers is nearly impossible.1 Therefore many sexual predators flee to these areas to abuse without a high chance of being caught or stopped. Indians had the right to try these non-native men until 1978 when it was taken away by the Federals , because they felt the men did not have a fair trial going into court with a jury of all natives. This a frightening matter as more than 80% of the rape that occurs on these reservations are executed by non-native men. Murdoch stats that the young women she talked to said it is disheartening to have to walk around in your village seeing your attacker everyday walking as a free man and knowing that he has probably raped up to five other girls from your village as well.2 The rape in these tribes have gotten so bad that the police have actually recommended that the women stop reporting them because there is a very high chance nothing will get done about it, to put this into perspective 35% of rapes are reported by black women, 32% reported by white women and only 13% reported by Indian women, even the people who are activist on the stop rape movement in these areas have told the women to stop reporting as it only causes them more trouble and heartache.1

To top it all off when these women do have the guts to go get themselves examined they often are turned away at the local clinics at well because the Indian nurses on duty do not have the training or the materials to perform a rape kit on the victims.2  These nurses do not even have a camera to record the damages done to these women’s bodies, making it hard to record the attack. However, not all has been lost during these troubling times for these women. The US Congress has recently motioned to put the Violence Against Women Act back into motion , if this happens it could save many women their lives and lead to these acts decreasing greatly on the reservation. The Violence Against Women Act stats that the reservations will once again be able to charge the non-native attackers in their tribal courts regardless of who makes up the jury.1 This means that the number of attackers who flee to these areas to marry or make partners out of the native women of these reservations just to sexual abuse them will decrease significantly. However, the hard part will be getting these women to look pass their fears and realize that by reporting these perverts something can and will be down to help bring a little more security to them and their families, and will they will no longer have to feel so hopeless as a victim knowing they helped take their attacker off the reservation and away from their family and friends.

But I thought... The Truth About Columbus

Kaitlyn Solotes

Last semester I took a religious studies class to fulfill my global connections requirement. The course I chose focused on indigenous cultures, their spiritual/religious rituals, and the impact of globalization on these cultures. During the first week my professor had us write down everything we have learned or know about Christopher Columbus; half torn sheets of paper with the words “Leader”, “Brave”, “Discoverer” were being passed up in piles. What was really written on the papers were the misconceptions that were taught to us in our 7^th grade social studies classes. [1] I soon found out what Columbus really did in the New World. These despicable acts and crimes against humanity included: Claiming/renaming the Arawak islands, enslaving locals to find gold, killing off the entire population from murder, disease, and suicide, and finally creating a false image of the Natives. [2] After first noting how kindhearted and peaceful the Natives were, Columbus began to portray Native Americans as cannibals, mythologized creatures with tails, and uncivilized savages with no form of government or religion. Now after learning about the rape and sexual assault involved I am even more horrified. It is obvious through Columbus's personal journal entries and witness acquaintances, such as De Las Casas, that he and his men did in fact aid in the raping of multiple indigenous women. I think it is a crime that students are brainwashed to associate the name Columbus with “Hero” instead of “Rapist”. Although the truth is much more gruesome than what we would like to believe, there is an easy alternative rather than falsify history; school systems can change their curriculum to discuss Columbus's voyages in high school as opposed to 6^th and 7^th grade. At such a young age students are not known to question their teachers. Instead, they're going to make Native American headdresses and celebrate good ol' Chris Columbus on their day off from school. What I find particularly interesting is that the negative characterization of Native Americans carried onto paintings and drawings; there are several paintings depicting the Natives as savages who eat human flesh as if it is a juicy turkey leg. In another image shown below the Native Americans are viewed as animalistic with beaks, long necks, and horns coming from their heads. Overall, my opinion of Christopher Columbus is that he may have arrived with good intentions, but those were soon destroyed after killing, raping, and tricking the Natives. I do not think we should have a National holiday celebrating his discovery when he would be dead if tried for murder today.

[1] Katsanos, Tina. "CC's Letter to the Sovereigns." Class lecture, LBST 2102 Global Connections from UNC Charlotte, Charlotte, September 18, 2013.

 

[2] Kasum, Eric. "Columbus Day? True Legacy: Cruelty and Slavery." Huff Post The Blog. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/ (accessed January 30, 2014).

Romance on College Campuses By: Rachel Valle

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1MtCeDl2sO7yVw3O3ovAV8NX9nkUskCy2GTlzPpPFz1E/edit

Who is Alfred Kinsey?

By Kylie Wallace

Alfred Kinsey was an educated man who had a long history of changing colleges and majors. This blog however, will only be focused on one career change. In 1938 Alfred and a group of other scholars led a course on marriage. Some of Kinsey’s lectures included biology of sexual stimulation, the mechanics of intercourse, and the techniques of contraception.[1] In this course he was basically using science to tell students being sexually deviant isn’t as deviant as it seemed and there was always some biological normality. In 1940 his class size grew to 400 due to his course content.[1] As a part of his course he would meet with students and take down their sexual histories. With the help of the National Research Council and other organizations Kinsey was able to interview outside people as well as hire research assistants.[1]  This was controversial when he published Sexual Behavior in the Human Male because within this book held over 5,000 sexual histories of men including pedophiles, and adulterous sexual activity.[1] I don’t think he could have really done what he was trying to do without the methods he used considering that unless the person is protected under some sort of confidentiality, most people wouldn’t be willing to participate in such a study. Kinsey is protecting people that aren’t necessarily the best, but psychologists are also protecting people who may do controversial things or think about it. Consider the time period as well, I think that today this study would have never been funded to begin with, however in the 1940’s and 50’s when confidentiality wasn’t as big I don’t really think anyone cared about who he was protecting they just cared that he published something so crude and straightforward about sexual histories and deviance. I don’t however believe that interviewing his students was in any way ok at all. 

It wasn’t until 1953 when he published Sexual Behavior in the Human Female that anyone really made any sort of reciprocation. He was put under congressional investigation which resulted in his loss of funding.[1] Kinsey wanted to change the way people viewed human sexuality and turn it into something normal. Some suggest that he used this study for his own morals to make things he thought about and did seem a little bit more ok.[1] I think the last part is up to opinion, and I haven’t done nearly enough research on this man to comment, but I do think that he uprooted the views of human sexuality and started a revolution. 

[1]. Theodore M. Brown, and Elizabeth Fee, "Alfred C. Kinsey: A Pioneer Of Sex Research," June , 2003, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1447862/.

Growing up in Silence

By: Bre-Ann Werner

          In today’s society, growing up ‘different’ is like being a prisoner in your own body. Our current generation is so mesmerized by what society has provoked to be ‘normal,’ that anyone who appears to be slightly off from the cookie cutter image is not accepted. In our society, the media has not only created an unrealistic image of what ‘normal’ should appear to be on the outside, but on the inside as well. Meaning, girls can only like boys, and boys can only like girls. Children grow up learning about two distinct genders/ sexes, and what their role is. They never grow up learning about gays, or even intersexed people. What about the people who grew up in silence their entire life because they were ‘different?’ No one ever thinks or talks about the people who were raised and identified as one gender and later on found out that they were something completely different. The lack of education on such an important topic creates a domino effect on people’s understanding to accept these individuals for who they are.

            The word “Intersex” is used to describe children that are born with very unusual sex characteristics. [1] For example, it ranges from girls that are be born with an enlarged clitoris, or boys born with very small genitals and no testes. These birth defects make their characteristics unapparent and difficult to define at first. [2] There are many different sex conditions within the word “Intersex.” A women can be born with AIS; Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome, which states that they are born with and x and a y chromosome instead of the normal xx chromosome.[3] As a result of this defect most women do not properly develop the parts they need to do normal womanly functions, like reproduce. AIS specifically is not as common as other general “Intersex” conditions are. About 1 in 20,000 babies are born with the AIS condition, while 1 in every 2,000 babies are born with other disorders of their sex development.[4]

            There is an extreme lack of education about disorders like this. When we learned about it in class I was absolutely blown away. I was astonished at how these babies can be born with these defects. More importantly, I was truly caught off guard with how hard their lives are as young children growing into adulthood. The stories of these children’s lives can be just like any of us or can be extremely devastating. When children with these sex defects are born, the doctor announces their sex as a newborn; they feel it is too risky to wait until they develop their personality and go through puberty. In that case, the doctor goes by what seems most accurate in their eyes. The parent of these children raise their children according to doctors’ orders. Unfortunately, in a lot of these cases the doctors are not always correct, and the children grow up raised as a boy or girl, and later on in life they discover that their body does not equal up to their sex identification. [i]

            Imagine that, growing up knowing yourself as a boy or a girl, and in your blooming years you soon figure out that you were not “normal” like you thought you were. I cannot even stand to think about growing up as a girl and then finding out that I have male parts growing on my body, as well as experiencing a male’s stages of puberty. Children that are currently experiencing this problem feel as if they have no part or place in this world; like as if they didn’t belong. Our society is so judgmental, but yet so uneducated. If people only knew that individuals are experiencing this on a daily basis, then maybe there wouldn’t be so many deaths and suicides over it.

 

 

 

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[1] Katie Baratz to Harvard College News online forum, September 24, 2007, Growing up 'Intersex,' Going on Oprah, http://www.haverford.edu/news/stories/411/51.

[2] Katie Baratz to Harvard College News online forum, September 24, 2007, Growing up 'Intersex,' Going on Oprah, http://www.haverford.edu/news/stories/411/51.

 

[3] Katie Baratz to Harvard College News online forum, September 24, 2007, Growing up 'Intersex,' Going on Oprah, http://www.haverford.edu/news/stories/411/51.

[4] Katie Baratz to Harvard College News online forum, September 24, 2007, Growing up 'Intersex,' Going on Oprah, http://www.haverford.edu/news/stories/411/51.

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[i] Morgan Holmes to Intersexed Society of North America online forum, , 2008, http://www.isna.org/node/743.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Women are Robbed of Respect

By: Bre-Ann Werner

 

            Have you ever watched a music video and wondered why the women are always partially or even fully nude? I know I have. This society has painted such a pretty image for the role and reputation of women. Now a days we see women on TV and in music videos with bodies that we would all like to stare at, and ‘talent’ that we would not want to see. Why is that? Why are women always the one exposing themselves and revealing the parts of their body that are meant to be ‘private?’ Why are men not the ones to stand around naked in front of dozens of crew members, and billions upon billions of TV viewers?

            The respect that men have for women is completely diminished in today’s society. People always wonder why women have ‘no respect’ for themselves, when it is the men who provoke behavior like this. Women are always known to be the ones to take off their clothes in front of the camera, so women think nothing of it when they do it because it’s ‘normal.” Everyone knows that it would be completely un normal for men to be nude in front of the camera. Studies show that the 100 top-earning movies of 2008 shows that men had 67% of the speaking roles; women had about 33%.[1] We all get enjoyment out of watching these things, but what happens when someone takes it too far? This past summer artist Robin Thicke created a number one summer hit around the world with “Blurred Lines.” This song was voted number one a countless amount of times because it is trendy, has a good beat, and people can dance/ sing to it. However, has anyone ever really listened to the lyrics enough to understand what they mean?

            In Robin Thicke’s song he addresses a grey/ ‘blurred’ area between consensual sex and assault. [2] Not many people realize this as they are singing and dancing along to this summer hit. The song directly says “I know you want it,” something that many rapists are known to say when they are sexually assaulting their victims. [3] Thicke also addresses the women in his song to be a “good girl.” Addressing a woman as a “good girl” is inferring forceful action on a woman to perform both the good and bad girl roles in sexual behavior against their will in order to satisfy the man.[4] Not only does Thicke completely disrespect all woman around the world with his sexual words, especially the ones that went through experiences like that, he crosses the line when he has naked women in front of the camera in his video for him. This is a prime example to the situation I stated above; how women are known to be the ones taking their clothes off in front of the camera. In Robin Thicke’s video there are several completely naked women dancing along to his provocative lyrics while Thicke himself is dressed in a full suite. When I saw this, I was astonished. I knew that women were always the ones getting nude in front of the camera, but when I saw Thicke in a full suit, I was blown away by the disrespect just coming from the way he presented himself vs the way he presented his women on camera. The woman’s desire plays absolutely no role in this song or music video. This ties into the general topic of how women are completely disrespected when it comes to being viewed and talked about in songs and music videos. Robin Thicke just blew the roof off when he based his entire song off on sexual assault and rape. The more fans of these kinds of artists and producers keep giving them “Top Hits,” this situation will only get worse. The fans of artists and producers like this don’t actually take the time out to read between the lines. If they did, then maybe they wouldn’t provoke such ill-mannered behavior.

 

 

 

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[1] Nanci Hellmich to USA Today online forum, March 22, 2011, Film Study: Men Talk and Woman Show Skin, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/movies/2011-04-21-movies-men-women-roles-speaking-sexy.htm.

[2] Sezin Koehler, "Sociological Images," From the Mouth's of Rapists: The Lyrics of Robin Thicke's Blurred Lines (blog), September 17, 2013, http://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2013/09/17/from-the-mouths-of-rapists-the-lyrics-of-robin-thickes-blurred-lines-and-real-life-rape/.

[3] Sezin Koehler, "Sociological Images," From the Mouth's of Rapists: The Lyrics of Robin Thicke's Blurred Lines (blog), September 17, 2013, http://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2013/09/17/from-the-mouths-of-rapists-the-lyrics-of-robin-thickes-blurred-lines-and-real-life-rape/.

[4] Sezin Koehler, "Sociological Images," From the Mouth's of Rapists: The Lyrics of Robin Thicke's Blurred Lines (blog), September 17, 2013, http://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2013/09/17/from-the-mouths-of-rapists-the-lyrics-of-robin-thickes-blurred-lines-and-real-life-rape/.

The Truth about the Duke Lacrosse Case

By: Andrew Nakamura

            When someone mentions the sport Lacrosse what comes to mind?  For me, I think about past games, past practices, how to constantly get better and how I am playing one of the oldest recorded sports ever played by the Native American people.  However, I have noticed there have been a lot of negative preconceived notions about the sport and its athletes since the Duke Lacrosse Case that happened in 2006.  I am here to clear up and explain what really happened.

            The date was March 13, 2006 where the Duke Lacrosse team hired two strippers for a house party.  One of the dancers was named Crystal Mangum and she claimed she was targeted and was raped in a bathroom by three of the players.[1]  However statements from the law enforcement stated from students who attended the party said, the players wanted white strippers and that an argument went back and forth between the players and the two strippers and the two left the house.  While leaving racial slurs were traded between Roberts, the other Stripper with Mangum, with a player and drove off.[2]  Roberts then called police and reported the party because she was called a racial slur.  While in the car the two women began to argue and Roberts had to go to a local supermarket and find a security guard to remove her from her car, this is when 911 was dispatched and Mangum was questioned.[3]

            DNA test were taken from 46 of the 47 lacrosse players because Mangum said she was sexual assaulted by white players, the 47^th was an African American player.  “DNA testing failed to connect any members of the Duke University men's lacrosse team to the alleged sexual assault of an exotic dancer, attorneys for some of the players said Monday.  Citing DNA test results delivered by the state crime lab to police and prosecutors a few hours earlier, the attorneys said the test results prove their clients did not sexually assault and beat a dancer hired to perform at a March 13 team party.”[5]

            A little over a year later, North Carolina Attorney General Roy Cooper declared that the players involved with the rape case were innocent[2] and that the Mangum falsely accused the Lacrosse team of rape.  This whole case cost the Duke Lacrosse its 2006 season and the head coach of the time step down.  “The NCAA has granted Duke's request for an extra year of eligibility for its men's lacrosse players following rape allegations that led to the cancellation of much of last season.”[4]  In the start of Spring 2007, Duke would go on to be seated as number 1 in the NCAA and went to the championship where they lost to John Hopkins University 12-11.

            I hope people take away that these players did not sexually assault someone and that the sport of lacrosse does not dictate how someone acts. 

           

  

[1] Charles Montaldo.  “Duke Lacrosse Team Rape Scandal.”

http://crime.about.com/od/current/a/duke_lacrosse.htm

(accessed January 31, 2014).

 [2] Susannah Meadows. “What Really Happened That Night At Duke.”

http://www.newsweek.com/what-really-happened-night-duke-97835

(accessed January 31, 2014).

 [3] “Duke Lacrosse Case Of False Rape Allegations.”

http://www.ejfi.org/Courts/Courts-24.htm

(accessed January 31, 2014).

 [4] “NCAA to allow Duke players to reclaim lost season.”

http://sports.espn.go.com/ncaa/news/story?id=2887146

(accessed January 31, 2014).

 [5] “Attorneys: No DNA match in Duke lacrosse case.”

http://sports.espn.go.com/ncaa/news/story?id=2404002

(accessed January 31, 2014).

Victorian Era vs Now: How advanced are we?

Written by Stefanie Testa

Okay, obviously times have changed. In 2014, we are way more advanced than we ever thought we could be. Technically, medically, and intellectually advanced. Still, I believe we, as a society, are shaped heavily from ideas of the Victorian Era which was 1837-1901.[1]

That was over 100 years ago!

I formed this opinion based on the movie we viewed in class, The History of Sex: Don Juan to Queen Victoria.[2] For a good portion of the film, they focused on the Victorian Era and the sexual tendencies of this time. Queen Victoria wanted to re-romanticized marriages and moreover, sex. She and her husband (I forgot his name), defined the idea of a patriarchy marriage in which the women were domestic housewives, and the husband, the bread-winner. This idea of marriage and gender roles within the marriage is something still very idealized today. 

I know many of men who believe their wives should “submit” to them whenever they please. These men I speak of are also the ones who expect the house to be clean and a hot meal to be prepared when they come home from work. “That is women’s work”, one may say. There is nothing wrong with that. If a woman wants to do those things for her husband, then so be it. I am just arguing that these ideas arrived from the Victorian Era, and are still accepted. Although women do, and rightfully so, have the same rights of men today. Even now, some women who work are also suppose to keep the house and cook for the husbands. I guess, it is just an idea that stuck. 

Also learned from the film, the concept of an “honeymoon” also derived from this time period. This is where the couple would first immerse in sexual intercourse. Another tradition still utilized today (although, for many, it is not the first time of sexual relations).

But did you know being “pure” until marriage was also a concept from Queen Victoria? Women were suppose to be clean, innocent, and untouched. However men didn’t have those same standards. Sound familiar? Not that every woman is expected to be virginal, but in today’s society, men are very rarely socially penalized for being a “player”. Yet, a woman who has slept with a handful of guys is automatically a “slut”. 

So yes, the Victorian Era was ages ago and we have changed greatly over time. We have come far in medical findings and discoveries. For example, I don’t think it is no longer a common belief too much sex is dangerous (there actually might be studies that prove its good for you and I might have to dedicate a future blog post to it). We are much more informed about the human body and its natural tendencies. Those are positives about living in the 21st century. Still, like stated earlier, ideas of marriage, gender roles, honeymoons, and purity all originate from an much primitive era. 

Where White Men Went Wrong

Written by Stefanie Testa

I came across this thought-provoking document as I was scrolling Twitter this past week. I found it really interesting that one of my peers posted something like this because usually what I find on my social media accounts are "selfies", people complaining about their mediocre lives, and the next rising celebrity scandals. Surprisingly enough, this article is related to what we began discussing this past Tuesday in class; Native American history. If you cannot read the picture, an Indian Chief Two Eagles was questioned by some government official, asking “where did the white men go wrong?” 

His response :

“When white man find land, Indians running it, no taxes, no debt, plenty buffalo, plenty beaver, clean water. Women did all the work. Medicine man free. Indian man spend all day hunting and fishing, all night having sex….Only white man dumb enough to think he could improve system like that.”[1]

I am not sure of the source of this picture or legitimacy of the “Indian” chief (since we learned that the word “Indian” was not an appropriate name for the indigenous people of the Americas), but coming from a historical aspect, everything the Chief stated seemed to be accurate. We learned from lecture that many native tribes were matriarchies in which women were the bread winners of the family, relationships were determined through the female, and a woman most likely held a leadership position in the community. [2]

Moreover, they “did all the work”. [1]

Another comment the Chief detailed, spending “all night having sex” relates even more closely to the topic of our class. Lecture explained that sex during these times, and to these indigenous people, was not considered sinful or something to be hidden but an experience that is natural and should be embraced. It’s a really unique way of thinking about a topic that has so much controversy. In today’s society, many people still view the word sex linked to uncleanliness and sinful pleasure. But then again, sex is everywhere. You can not watch TV without seeing some type of sexualized commercial, let alone the show you are probably watching includes an affair of some sort, and most likely based on relationships and the sexual tendencies of young and carefree individuals (AKA any show on MTV). Any kind of media for that matter has something involved with sex. Sex sells. So why, with all the sexual innuendos that surround our every day life, do we still have so much secrecy and negative connotations with sex? These are questions I ask myself, too, because I have had very conflicting opinions about it over the years. 

I think the Native Americans had it right. No media and no cell phones and no society that controls the way we live. Just nature, our bodies, and wide-open-spaces.

Has Femininity Really Changed Over the Years?

By: Allyson Wiggs

Over the years, women in the United States have overcome many obstacles. Women used to be treated very poorly and had very little rights. Many years ago, women were never considered for jobs and if they were considered, which was rare, then they would be paid much less than a man would be paid. The woman’s job was to stay in the house and cook, clean, and take care of the children, while the man was out working and making money for the family. [1] This concept seems so shocking now because the man and woman are very equal in today’s society when it comes to working and making money.

Women’s roles were not the only thing that used to be completely separate from men. Women were thought to be “feminine,” while men were thought to be “masculine.” This term, “feminine,” was thought to define a woman’s personality. Women were thought to not be social. They were expected to keep to themselves and not mingle with the others. Women were thought to be the complete opposite from men and none of their personality traits could coincide with a males. They way women ended up being judged was by how restrained they were. The more restrained a woman was, the more feminine she was.[2] This is surprising to me because in today’s society woman are not thought to be introverted. Women are thought to be “social butterfly’s,” who go out with their friends and gossip about many different things.

Although it is clear that women’s femininity has come a long way, I sometimes wonder if it has really come that far. I wonder this because women are still expected to behave a certain way. For a woman to be considered feminine, she must follow a strict set of guidelines. A woman should always look presentable and there should never be a time when a woman is not fixed up. A woman should love her body, no matter how it looks. A woman should never judge someone else because it shows they are not confident. A woman should speak politely and walk elegantly. A woman should be gentle and love herself.[3] All of these things that a woman “should” do, are not easy to make happen on a daily basis. A woman’s femininity should not be judged if she is having a rough day and doesn’t put on makeup. It should also not be judged if she is trying to work out and get in shape because that doesn’t mean she isn’t comfortable with herself, it just means she is trying to better herself.

Overall, a woman should not have to show affection, passion, love, and sensuality to be considered feminine.[4] A woman should be able to behave in any way she wants without being judged. In all honesty, I don’t know which is worse – that a woman must be the complete opposite from a man or that a woman must follow a set of guidelines to be feminine. While femininity has went from one extreme to another, I do not think it has really improved it has only changed to another negative view on women.

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[1] Rosen, Ruth. "Feminism Has Come a Long Way - or Has It?." The Nation, 02 21, 2013. http://www.thenation.com/article/173036/feminism-has-come-long-way-or-has-it?page=0,0 (accessed January 31, 2014).

[2] "Masculinity and Femininity: A Changing Perspective Over Eighty Years." junkworthdiscussing (blog), http://junkworthdiscussing.blogspot.com/2007/11/masculinity-and-femininity-changing.html (accessed January 31, 2014).

[3] "10 Steps to Becoming a Feminine Woman." The Proper Lady (blog), 01 12, 2013. http://www.theproperlady.com/2013/01/10-steps-to-becoming-feminine-woman.html (accessed January 31, 2014).

[4] “12 Top Feminine And 12 Top Masculine Traits That Could Change Your Life,” accessed January 31, 2014, http://ryzeonline.com/12-top-feminine-and-12-top-masculine-traits-that-could-change-your-life/.